Reyes, Lead Exposure and Behavior: Effects on Antisocial and Risky Behavior Among Children and Adolescents, Cambridge, Mass. Stacey Storch Bracken and Janet E. Fischel, Family Reading Behavior and Early Literacy Skills in Preschool Children From Low-income Backgrounds,Early Education and Development 19, no. The Contribution of Lead-Contaminated Dust to Childrens Blood Lead Levels,Environmental Health Perspectives117, no. See note 16. All children should be screened for lead. Richard L. Canfield, Charles R. Henderson Jr., Deborah A. Cory-Slechta, Christopher Cox, Todd A. Jusko, and Bruce P. Lanphear, Intellectual Impairment in Children With Blood Lead Concentrations Below 10 g per Deciliter,New England Journal of Medicine 348, no. Economists, sociologists, and developmental psychologists have consistently concluded that background characteristics strongly shape cognitive and behavioral outcomes.1 When school improvement is not complemented by policies to narrow social class differences, students chances of success are greatly diminished. Christopher Spera, A Review of the Relationship Among Parenting Practices, Parenting Styles, and Adolescent School Achievement,Educational Psychology Review17, no. 2023 Economic Policy Institute Joseph G. Grzywacz, Stepanie S. Daniel, Jenna Tucker, Jill Walls, and Esther Leerkes, Nonstandard Work Schedules and Developmentally Generative Parenting Practices: An Application of Propensity Score Techniques,Family Relations 60, no. Glenn Flores, and Hua Lin, Trends in Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Medical and Oral Health, Access to Care, and Use of Services in U.S. Children: Has Anything Changed Over the Years?International Journal for Equity in Health12, no. No influence is fully determinative. * Census does not report data corresponding to actual income quintiles. Kantor, 2014. Wheeler and Brown, 2013. This analysis does not imply that school improvement cannot improve the outcomes of disadvantaged children, but rather that policies other than school improvement should be given strong consideration, as should the possibility that at least some of these policies may be more powerful levers for raising the achievement of disadvantaged children than the school improvement strategies that policymakers conventionally consider and advocate. National Center for Educational Statistics, (n.d.), Early Childhood Longitudinal Program: Kindergarten Class of 201011.. See note 89. Zhang, 2013. . See note 63. Lower-middle-class children (those whose families are in the second income quartile) whose mothers have worked non-standard shifts for from one to four years have close to twice the odds of being overweight at age 13 or 14 as children from economically similar families whose mothers do not work non-standard shifts.72. These steps should be complemented by eliminating tax code requirements that married couples claiming the EITC must file jointly (thereby raising their marginal tax rate). During the 2000s, the black-white and Medicaid non-enrolled versus enrolled gaps declined very slightly, while the income gap and the gap between children living in older versus newer housing grew substantially. See note 92. Bonnie B. Strickland, Jessica R. Jones, Reem M. Ghandour, Michael D. Kogan, and Paul W. Newacheck, The Medical Home: Health Care Access and Impact for Children and Youth in the United States, Pediatrics 127, no. David C. Ribar, Why Marriage Matters for Child Well-Being, The Future of Children (2015, forthcoming). We are especially grateful to Emma Garcia, an economist at the Economic Policy Institute, who developed survey data from ECLS-K: 2011 and from ATUS, and guided us through the methodologies so we could judge their relative reliabilities. 115. Because these characteristics co-vary, we cannot know whether addressing any one will be effective without simultaneously addressing others. 38. See note 37. 76. James L. Pirkle, Rachel B. Kaufmann, Debra J. Brody, Tamy Hickman, Elaine W. Gunter, and Daniel C. Paschal, Exposure of the U.S. Population to Lead, 19911994, Environmental Health Perspectives 106, no. See note 64, 79. 24 (2011): 232433. For the characteristics reviewed below, where recent research provides reliable information, we discuss: We conclude by reviewing practical reforms to narrow differences in these characteristics that would, in turn, likely help narrow outcome gaps. 4 (2011): 60411, at Table 2. Some higher quality (and more expensive) public and private preschool programs may provide models. Another estimate found that in the year following a divorce, a single-mother household suffers a 40 percent income loss, with little change in subsequent years. Table 8 shows racial differences in non-standard work, i.e., work in which most hours do not fall between 8 a.m. and 4 p.m., shifts rotate, or schedules vary weekly or otherwise. The student council was created in order to manage their college/school events by collecting funds, introducing new events and discuss their ideologies with the college/school management. 90. Amato, 2005. 64, no. Economic Policy Institute, Black Median Family Income, as a Share of White Median Family Income,19472013. Six-year-olds from affluent families have spent 1,300 more hours in indoor and outdoor recreation, churches, businesses, and other non-school, non-home, and non-caretaker settings than children from low-income families. 5 (2010): 124567. Increasing childrens lead-in-blood levels by 10 percent predicts a 1 percent increase in child behavior problems but a 4 percent increase in teenage aggressive behavior, a 5 percent increase in teenage criminal behavior, and an 8 percent increase in teenage pregnancy. 39. 1 (2008): 286. Twenty years later, pregnancies among 15- to 17-year-olds peaked at nearly 60 per 1,000 teenagers and, shortly afterward, violent crimes peaked at about 7.5 per 1,000 Americans. Ron Haskins, No Way Out: Dealing With the Consequences of Changes in Family Composition, in Paul R. Amato, AlanBooth, Susan M.McHale, and JenniferVan Hook, eds., Families in an Era of Increasing Inequality: Diverging Destinies, National Symposium on Family Issues 5 (Springer International Publishing, 2015, p. 178). 58. 103. Social structures have different consequences depending on what group is affected. For each comparison, differences in having personal physicians or nurses are small, but the differences are so consistent across all comparisons that real problems seem evident. 34 (2007): 35591, at 37879. That students social and economic characteristics shape their cognitive and behavioral outcomes is well established, yet policymakers typically resist accepting that non-school disadvantages necessarily depress outcomes. 1 (2008): 4567. The first manifest function of education is socialization, which refers to the process of learning the norms and values of one's culture. See note 3. the plausible pathways by which these associations may reflect causation. The Strathmore University Student Council is established in accordance with the University Statute XXXIX. 62. Ribar, 2015, forthcoming. 43. Donate. Misuses drugs or alcohol 3. For each characteristic reviewed here, this report describes its average incidence by race (black versus white) and socioeconomic status. 7. Some children with less literate parents excel beyond the typical performance of college graduates children. Lower-class parents expect more deference to authority. At first glance this empirical result seems to be counterintuitive, because supervision of adolescents is most necessary in the after-school and evening hours. United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2013. Mothers with non-standard schedules must make last-minute child care arrangements with friends or relatives; many cannot enroll children in high-quality centers that require predictable drop-off and pick-up times. 12. 31. Nancy E. Hill and Diana F. Tyson, Parental Involvement in Middle School: A Meta-Analytic Assessment of the Strategies That Promote Achievement, Developmental Psychology45, no. Social dysfunction of the student council can be reduced by building trust among members, planning activities well in advance. Where research is available, we then review what is known about the characteristics prediction of cognitive (academic performance or IQ, for example) and non-cognitive (behavioral) outcomes. Rather, policymakers should simultaneously improve schools and narrow inequalities. Table 12 reports results of a CDC survey measuring lead-in-blood levels of children from 1 to 5 years of age. Rising Inequality, Schools, and Childrens Life Chances (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2011), also online appendix Table 3.A5. 57. Leila Morsy (l.morsy@unsw.edu.au) is a lecturer ineducation at the School of Education, University of New South Wales. Children of single parents also have worse behavioral outcomes.40 Table 6 summarizes results from a nationally representative 1995 survey. Similar correlations exist for murder (the most accurately reported crime) and in other countries.108, The natural experimental condition that arose from the different rates at which states required lead removal from gasoline reveals correlations, in otherwise observably similar young children and teenagers, between state blood lead levels and lagged non-cognitive outcomes including impulsiveness, inattention and hyperactivity disorder, defiant behavior, delinquency, bullying, lack of temper control, cruelty, drug and alcohol abuse, early sexual activity, and teen pregnancy.109 Childhood lead exposure also appears to be closely linked to young adult criminal behavior. 10 (2007): 111821. In 2013, the actual upper limits of the bottom four income quintiles were approximately $28,600, $51,400, $79,300, and $121,700. By lower class, we refer to families with mutually reinforcing characteristics that usually include low income, less educational attainment, less wealth, living in disadvantaged neighborhoods, and others. : Westat, 1995. Explanation: That most child laborers are condemned to lifelong poverty, misery, sickness, illiteracy, and social dysfunction. Another 2021 study revealed that medical. Ribar, 2015, forthcoming. See note 30. It focuses on five characteristics for purposes of illustration: These are not the only characteristics that depress outcomes, nor are they necessarily the most important. 7 (July 2011): 316. Econometric studies that identify the effect of a particular characteristic by holding others constant are valuable. McLanahan et al., 2010. 10, (1996): 71620, at 718 (Table 3). 3 Latent Functions of the Student Council See answer Advertisement livelimety Answer: Latent functions include (1)socialization with peers and (2)conformity to norms, (3)giving students an opportunity to develop leadership. Children from the lowest quintile have adult arrest rates 15 percentage points higher and high school completion rates 31 points lower than highest-quintile children.23, Parents who are more involved in their childrens educations by volunteering outside the classroom, helping their children with homework, and checking their childrens homework have children with fewer behavioral problems in the classroom.24, The availability of childrens books and whether mothers read aloud, share meals with their children, use non-harsh discipline, expect their children to help keep their homes clean, are affectionate with their children, and encourage children to contribute to conversation all predict better social skills and fewer teacher-reported behavioral problems.25, Parents with more education have greater educational expectations and can convey enjoyment of learning. Public service campaigns have stressed the importance of identifying students who have a fascination with guns or violence. National Center for Healthy Housing. 3 (2009): 68095. 37. Table 5 compares the economic circumstances of various family structures. 7 (2005): 894. Introduction. See note 93. Policy choices have tilted the playing field toward the rich and corporations. However, survey questions were poorly framed, encouraging social acceptability bias (the tendency of interview subjects to exaggerate their responses in accordance with what they understand is considered desirable). Yet because research upon which this report relies usually includes controls for some other characteristics, addressing any of these issues will likely make some difference. See note 64. 25. Variable schedules prevent parents from enrolling in school themselves, an activity that might enable them to provide better intellectual environments and models of educational aspiration for their children.80, In general, the harmful effects of working non-standard schedules seem to be more pronounced for children of parents who work night shifts (starting after 9 p.m.) than for children of parents who work other non-standard schedules (evening shifts beginning after 2 p.m., rotating or variable shifts). See note 37. A child whose parent has only a high school education is twice as likely to be living with a never-married mother than with two parents (35 versus 18 percent), whereas a child with a college-educated parent is more than five times as likely to be living with two parents than with a never-married mother (48 versus 9 percent). So too are children living near Superfund toxic waste sites that have not fully been cleaned; these were disproportionately located in low-income and minority communities.100, Even very low levels of lead contribute to cognitive impairment, including reductions in IQ and verbal and reading ability, with no identifiable safe bottom threshold.101 In particular, increases in blood lead levels at the lower end of the blood-lead-level scale (less than 10 micrograms per deciliter) are associated with the strongest decreases in IQ, while quantitatively similar increases at the higher end of the blood-lead-level scale have a definite but less severe marginal impact.102, Children with blood lead levels from 5 to 9 have average IQ scores 4.9 points lower than children with levels below 5. J.W. jw2019 Risk group: families with children and with problems of social dysfunction UN-2 Employees of Riga Municipality Police CDPD supervise families with children having problems of social dysfunction. Lambert, Fugiel, and Henly, 2014. 23. While they generally understand that family and community characteristics affect performance, they also fear that acknowledging this fact means we should tolerate lower standards for disadvantaged children, something they consider morally and politically unacceptable. 70. 105. Wheeler and Brown, 2013. Restricted access impedes timely treatment of conditions like skin allergies, asthma, and dental problems, more prevalent (partly from less access) for black than white children.84 For each race or social class category surveyed, disadvantaged children have less access to quality health care. See note 64. Susan B. Neuman and Donna C. Celano, Giving Our Children a Fighting Chance: Poverty, Literacy, and the Development of Information Capital (New York: Teachers College Press, 2012, pp. Thus, we must report data using such definitions with great caution. Workers required to stay beyond their regularly scheduled shifts should be entitled to overtime premiums, even if they have not yet worked 8 hours in the day or 40 hours in the week. White parents are only two-thirds as likely to be assigned non-daytime shifts as minority parents. 127. None of this reports recommendations alone will close the achievement gap, but, implemented together, they could make a substantial difference. David L. Olds, JoAnn Robinson, Lisa Pettitt, Dennis W. Luckey, John Holmberg, Rosanna K. Ng, Kathy Isacks, Karen Sheff, and Charles R. Henderson Jr., Effects of Home Visits by Paraprofessionals and by Nurses: Age 4 Follow-Up Results of a Randomized Trial, Pediatrics 114, no. 81. But it seems apparent that children with limited access are more likely to be sick and absent from school. 24. Patrick Sharkey, Stuck in Place: Urban Neighborhoods and the End of Progress Towards Racial Equality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013). See note 38. Duncan and Magnuson, 2011. 65. See note 37. 35. 4. 48, no. Where hazardous levels exist, housing code enforcement, home repair subsidies, even demolition are appropriate to ensure that children live in lead-safe housing. Parental unemployment and low wages, housing instability, concentration of disadvantage in segregated neighborhoods, stress, malnutrition, and health problems like asthma are among other harmful characteristics. See note 63. Children in racially isolated and predominantly low-income schools have few peers who legitimize higher achievement standards. Harriet B.Presser and Brian W. Ward, Nonstandard Work Schedules Over the Life Course: A First Look,Monthly Labor Review134, no. Haskins, 2014. See note 92. Amendments to the Fair Labor Standards Act should require premiums for work performed beyond eight hours following the first working hour of the day or outside typical daytime hours (e.g., 7 a.m. to 6 p.m.). Eric I. Knudson, James J. Heckman, Judy L. Cameron, and Jack P. Shonkoff, Economic, Neurobiological, and Behavioral Perspectives on Building Americas Future Workforce, PNAS (Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences) 103, no. Highlighting the socioeconomic impediments to student achievement does not make excuses for the achievement gap, as some advocates glibly, and defensively, charge.2 Rather, it provides explanations. Planning and organizing events has given me the opportunity to communicate and meet new people. Such characteristics interact, so precise estimates are not possible for the shares of achievement gaps attributable to specific social class differences, just as they are not possible for the shares attributable to teacher performance or other school qualities. Isabel V. Sawhill, Generation Unbound: Drifting Into Sex and Parenthood Without Marriage (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2014, pp. 59. Newsletter See note 39. College-educated parents have non-daytime shifts one-third as often as parents with high school degrees or less. NIOST (National Institute on Out-of-School Time), Making the Case: A Fact Sheet on Children and Youth in Out-of-School Time, Wellesley, Mass. 1 (2004): 5881. (2011),[83] Table 2. "The council was shown the scale model and said it was good, and then decided the completed sculpture would . Adolescence: high school graduation with GPA 2.5, no criminal conviction, no parenthood Early childhood: acceptable pre-literacy, math, and behavioral skills May 16, Annual Caring Force State House Rally, Providers' Council (Massachusetts) May 17-19, Washington State Nonprofit Conference, Nonprofit Association of Washington. 1 (2011): 1529, at 23. 51. Duncan and Magnuson, 2011, online appendix Table 3.A5 and Table 3.A6. 1 (2011): 4559. Drum, 2013. See note 3. Reyes, 2014. 3 (2007): 62023. Thus, educators should, as educators, be vocal advocates for policies that reduce poverty and address other characteristics of lower-class status.aBut educators can do more, seizing opportunities to coordinate school improvement with community services that ameliorate socioeconomic disadvantageservices such as early childhood care and education, nurse home-visiting programs, after-school and summer opportunities, school-based health centers, and sponsorship of community lead cleanup. 36. 6 (2004): 156068. Table 4 shows average parental education by family structure. Girls raised in single-parent households are more likely to give birth themselves as single mothers.42, If a teenage mother has a high school diploma, the average annual incomes of her children when they reach young adulthood will be more than 10 percent greater, on average, than those of children of a teenage mother without a diploma. Other analyses find that black mothers are about two-thirds as likely as white mothers to read to toddlers daily.7, ECLS-K reports responses by socioeconomic status (SES), using an SES definition including parents income, education, and occupational prestige. See note 58. Amato, 2005. d. ECLS asks about typical activities; ATUS asks specifically about time spent the previous day, generating more accurate responses. Social dysfunction is a core deficit associated with prenatal alcohol exposure. 92. 44. But in more middle-class neighborhoods there were over 3,000 children per physician, and only 76 percent were board certified.85 Physician supply in low-income neighborhoods was likely even more restricted.86, Parents seeking appointments with specialists for their children are refused two-thirds of the time with public insurance but only 11 percent of the time with private insurance.87, Available data do not directly associate physician access with childrens educational outcomes. These councils exist in most public and private K-12 school systems in different countries. Richard Rothstein (rrothstein@epi.org) is a research associate of the Economic Policy Institute. 5657). By 2014, the share of births that were births to unmarried teenagers had dropped to 6 percent, and it is reasonable to assume that these teenagers too will have some subsequent children as unmarried adults. United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2013. Rather, they look to better schools and teachers to close achievement gaps, and consistently come up short. What Can Be Done to Reduce Teen Pregnancy and Out-of-Wedlock Births? 124. Because parents, especially single parents, with variable schedules cannot easily schedule doctor appointments, their children likely receive less non-emergency, routine, and preventive care.79 They may then have marginally worse health and more school absenteeism, also harming their development. Adolescents are vulnerable to psychosocial problems because of physical and physiological changes that occur in their body during this developmental stage. Ameliorating single parenthoods negative outcomes requires reforms discussed above: home-visiting programs like the NFP, high-quality early childhood care and education, and high-quality after-school and summer programs for children whose home lives are unstable and resource-starved. The decline in teen pregnancy in recent years has not been fully explained by researchers; lower lead-in-blood levels may provide part of the explanation.113, Young bodies treat lead as though it were calcium, essential to healthy brain development. 130. 61. Use this page to find the resources you need to support your full summer experience. Mothers with non-standard schedules are more likely to be low-income and younger and to have spent more years as single parents.62 But not all parents with non-standard schedules are low-income: Some work non-standard schedules bychoicefor example, to ensure that one of two parents is always available to care for children. Careful expansion is warranted. From March 2020 to October 2020, mental health-related emergency department visits increased 24% for children ages 5 to 11 and 31% for those ages 12 to 17 compared with 2019 emergency department visits, according to CDC data (Leeb, R. T., et al., Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, Vol. Nevin, 2000. And single-parent households have, on average, substantially less wealth than two-parent households.35, In 1999, 10 percent of all births were births to unmarried teenagers, many of whom then had additional children as unmarried adults. 120. Washington, D.C.: Future of Children, Fall 2010, at p. 3. Most have substantial fluctuation in weekly hours. Kantor, 2014. Young African American men as a group are less employable because they are discriminatorily incarcerated at very high rates. Lead clean-up should be a priority. 45. Harolyn Tarr, Randall E. Raymond, and Margaret Tufts, The Effects of Lead Exposure on School Outcome Among Children Living and Attending Public Schools in Detroit, MI,Detroit: Department of Health and Wellness Promotion, Detroit Public Schools, 2009. This does not mean that schools are ineffective with lower SES children; rather, lower SES gains resemble those of higher quintiles, and initial gaps are left mostly unchanged.17, Low-income parents of children in Head Start who spend more time reading to their children, visit the library more often, keep more childrens books in the home, and begin reading to their children at an earlier age have children with higher literacy skills. Nicholas Zill, Christine Winquist Nord, and Laura Spencer Loomis, Adolescent Time Use, Risky Behavior, and Outcomes: An Analysis of National Data, Rockville, Md. See note 63. See note 93. Children living with never-married mothers are four times as likely to be in low-income families as children living with both parents. 99. See note 16. But no study controls for all, and few control for very many. After childbirth, nurses work with mothers to improve parenting practices, helping them understand infants and toddlers communicative signals and encouraging activities that promote emotional and cognitive development. 98. Data limitations also preclude discussion of Native Americans and other disadvantaged minorities. Do Unpredictable Hours Undermine Upward Mobility? Both manifest and latent functions are beneficial to society. Our terrific editor, Patrick Watson, clarified what we attempted to say. Magnuson and Duncan, 2014. But while we cannot estimate the precise contribution of each disadvantage to achievement gaps, influences not attributable to schools are so numerous that policy should consider how to address them. May 19, State Legislative Briefing, Nonprofit Association of Oregon. Barry M. Popkin, Anna Maria Siega-Riz, and Pamela S. Haines, A Comparison of Dietary Trends Among Racial and Socioeconomic Groups in the United States, New England Journal of Medicine 335, no. 128. Table 3 shows shares of children, by race, living with single mothers. 4453). ** Does not include children in households where no parent lives. Report of Advisory Committee on Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention, Blood Lead Levels in Children Aged 15 YearsUnited States, 19992010, Issue Brief: Childhood Lead Exposure and Educational Outcomes, Focus on After-School Time for Violence Prevention, Making the Case: A Fact Sheet on Children and Youth in Out-of-School Time, Elizabeth Warren to Help Propose Senate Bill to Tackle Part-Time Schedules. 40. 82. Daniel P. Miller and Wen-Jui Han, Maternal Nonstandard Work Schedules and Adolescent Overweight,American Journal of Public Health98, no. See note 90. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2014. President Ken Gormley announced the formation of the Duquesne University President's Advisory Council for Diversity and Inclusion in February 2018. 9. Sarah Zhang, Is There Lead in Your House? Mother Jones, January/February 2013. We try to show the effect of childrens social conditions on their cognitive and non-cognitive outcomes. See note 37. These programs help schoolchildren develop critical thinking and cultural experiences that support success. Richard Rothstein, The Making of Ferguson: Public Policies at the Root of Its Troubles, Washington, D.C.: Economic Policy Institute, October 15, 2014, http://www.epi.org/files/2014/making-of-ferguson-final.pdf. Mental health crises are also on the rise. Washington, DC 20005 However, the relative share of immigrants in the African American population is still not large enough to preclude the usefulness of the category.. Source: Amato (2005),[41] Table 1 (p. 86), On each measure, adolescents in single-parent households reported greater emotional and behavioral difficulty, including higher rates of delinquency and illicit drug use. Math and reading skills of entering kindergartners in the top and bottom SES quintiles differ by about 40 percentile points in normal distributions.16 Cognitive gaps do not change much from kindergarten to middle school. Interactive tools and videos bringing clarity to the national dialogue on economic inequality. Policymakers should develop labor market, health, and social policies, such as those recommended in this report, that will improve the living conditions of lower-social-class children and their families and that will likely have a palpable impact on childrens achievement. Board of Directors After 1970, environmental lead steadily plummeted. According to the American Council on Education, enrollment is likely to drop by 15% in the fall of 2020, while at the same time many institutions may have to confront demands for large tuition cuts if classes remain virtual.1 In a similar vein, students face an increasingly uncertain environment, where nancial and When brains absorb lead instead of calcium, connections essential to executive functions, like control of aggression, develop less adequately.114 Low-income childrens diets are lower in calcium than higher-income childrens; among low-income children, black childrens diets are lower in calcium than white childrens, making black children more likely to absorb lead.115. mercy ministries lawsuit,

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